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Book of Daniel · Wordplay & Refrains

Wordplay, Refrains & Dominion Language דָּנִיֵּאל

Daniel is famous for its beasts and visions, but its vocabulary is just as carefully crafted. Repeated phrases, royal formulas, dominion language, and time words quietly preach a theology of power, judgment, and true humanity under the Son of Man.

Royal decrees & courtroom formulae Dominion & kingdom vocabulary Time phrases & numerical patterns Beast vs. human language
Overview

Not Just Strange Visions: Listening to Daniel's Vocabulary

The Book of Daniel uses language the way it uses images. Courtroom titles, royal decrees, kingdom words, wisdom phrases, and time numbers are repeated and rearranged until they become a kind of liturgy. As we keep hearing them, we slowly learn to see empires as God sees them—and to hope in the one "like a son of man" who receives everlasting dominion.

Power Words

Words for kingdom, dominion, rule, and "peoples, nations, and languages" appear again and again. At first they describe beastly empires; later they are reassigned to the Son of Man and the saints.

Kingdom (מַלְכוּ) Dominion (שָׁלְטָן) Rule Peoples · Nations · Languages

Court Words

Daniel is full of courtroom and bureaucracy language: decrees, "the law of the Medes and Persians," "signed writings," and "books" that are opened. Earth's courts echo the heavenly court.

Decree Law Signed writing Books opened

Wisdom & Time Words

Phrases like "reveal mysteries," "give wisdom," "understanding," and time-phrases like "sevens," "times," and "time, times, and half a time" mark key turns in the story of exile and its end.

Reveal mysteries Wisdom & insight Sevens Time, times, half
Key Refrain

"Peoples, Nations, and Languages": A Refrain That Changes Hands

One of Daniel's most significant repeated phrases is "peoples, nations, and languages" (עַמְמַיָּא אֻמַּיָּא וְלִשָּׁנַיָּא). This phrase appears in both imperial decrees and in the vision of the Son of Man—but with very different owners.

Phase 1: Imperial Command

In the early chapters, "peoples, nations, and languages" describes those who must obey Babylon's commands:

  • "To you it is commanded, O peoples, nations, and languages: when you hear the sound of the horn… you are to fall down and worship the golden image" (3:4–5).
  • The phrase appears in royal decrees that demand allegiance to empire.
Imperial decree language Forced worship Babylon's claim to universal rule

Phase 2: Son of Man's Kingdom

In Daniel 7, the same phrase is transferred to the Son of Man:

  • "To him was given dominion and glory and a kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him" (7:14).
  • The exact vocabulary of imperial command becomes the language of true, everlasting kingship.
The refrain doesn't just repeat—it changes ownership. What beastly empires claimed by force, the Son of Man receives by divine gift. The same phrase that described forced worship in chapter 3 now describes willing, universal allegiance in chapter 7.
Transferred to Son of Man Everlasting dominion Worship freely given
Pay attention to this phrase as you read Daniel. It appears in Nebuchadnezzar's decrees (3:4, 7; 4:1; 5:19; 6:25) and then in the climactic vision of the Son of Man (7:14). The literary effect is powerful: empire's boast becomes God's gift to the truly human ruler.

See the Literary Design page for how this transfer fits the book's structure.
Royal Court Refrains

Pagan Kings Who Accidentally Preach

The court tales end with royal decrees that sound surprisingly similar. Kings who built statues and issued death sentences turn around and publish near-liturgical confessions about Israel's God. The repeated formulas become a refrain that closes each story.

Furnace Decree (Daniel 3)

After the fiery furnace, Nebuchadnezzar issues a decree about the God of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego: no one may speak against him, because "there is no other god who is able to save in this way."

The king who demanded worship now forbids blasphemy against Israel's God. Empire becomes an unwitting herald.

Confession After Humbling (Daniel 4)

When Nebuchadnezzar's reason returns, he blesses "the Most High" whose kingdom is "an everlasting kingdom" and whose dominion lasts "from generation to generation."

The once-beastly king uses Israel's favorite kingdom language to praise Israel's God.

Lion's Den Decree (Daniel 6)

After Daniel is delivered from the lions, Darius proclaims that Daniel's God is "the living God, enduring forever," whose kingdom "shall never be destroyed."

The empire's law machine now prints theology: God's kingdom outlasts every law of the Medes and Persians.
Dominion & Kingdom Vocabulary

When Dominion Words Change Owners

One of Daniel's most important "wordplays" is not a pun but a transfer. The same kingdom and dominion language used for beastly empires is later used for the Son of Man and the holy ones of the Most High.

Phase 1: Beastly Empires

Early in the book, dominion words describe mighty human rulers: Nebuchadnezzar's rule over peoples and nations, the statue made of four metals, and beastly kingdoms devouring the earth.

  • "You, O king… to whom the God of heaven has given the kingdom, the power, and the might…" (2)
  • "All peoples, nations, and languages" serve the statue's command (3).
  • Beasts "devour much flesh" (7).
Kingdom Power Peoples & nations

Phase 2: Son of Man & Saints

In chapter 7, the same vocabulary is reassigned. The Son of Man receives "dominion and glory and a kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him," and that kingdom is given to "the holy ones of the Most High."

  • "His dominion is an everlasting dominion" (7:14).
  • "The kingdom and the dominion and the greatness… shall be given to the people of the holy ones" (7:27).
Everlasting dominion All peoples Given to the saints
Daniel doesn't just say the beasts fall and the Son of Man rises. It moves the entire dominion vocabulary from violent empire to a truly human ruler who shares his kingdom with the faithful.

מַלְכוּ (malkû) — Kingdom

This Aramaic term appears over 50 times in Daniel 2–7. It initially describes Nebuchadnezzar's rule ("your kingdom is great," 2:37) but culminates in the "everlasting kingdom" given to the Son of Man (7:14). The word itself becomes contested territory—who truly has malkû?

שָׁלְטָן (sholtan) — Dominion, Authority

Related to the verb "to rule," this term describes imperial power. In 7:6, the third beast is "given dominion"; in 7:14, the Son of Man receives "dominion, glory, and a kingdom" that "shall not pass away." The transfer of sholtan from beasts to the human figure is the book's central narrative arc.

Wisdom & Revealed Mysteries

"There Is a God in Heaven Who Reveals Mysteries"

Another set of repeated phrases ties the book together: wisdom and revelation language. Daniel's God reveals mysteries that no wise man, enchanter, or astrologer can uncover on their own.

Early Setup (Chapters 1–2)

From the beginning, God "gives" wisdom to Daniel and his friends. When no one can tell Nebuchadnezzar his dream, Daniel says that "there is a God in heaven who reveals mysteries."

  • God gives "knowledge and understanding" (1:17).
  • "He reveals deep and hidden things" (2:22).
  • "He has made known… what we asked of him" (2:23).

Later Echoes (Chapters 7–12)

In the visions, Daniel keeps asking for "understanding." Angelic figures explain the visions, and wisdom words keep appearing alongside the promise that "those who are wise shall shine."

  • "Make this man understand the vision" (8:16).
  • "None of the wicked shall understand; but those who are wise shall understand" (12:10).
  • "Those who are wise shall shine like the brightness of the sky" (12:3).

Wisdom in Genesis and Daniel: Two Uses of Arum

In Genesis 3:1, the serpent is described as "more crafty (arum) than any beast of the field." The Hebrew word arum is not inherently negative—in Proverbs, it describes the wise person who watches their steps and sees danger coming.

The serpent uses wisdom-language for devious purposes: to deceive humans into grasping at godlike knowledge. Daniel's wisdom language offers a contrast:

  • The serpent claims to reveal what God is hiding.
  • Daniel's God actually reveals mysteries—freely, to those who ask.
  • The serpent's wisdom leads to death; Daniel's wisdom leads to shining like stars.
Daniel reclaims wisdom vocabulary from the serpent's misuse. True wisdom is not grasped through deception but received through humble dependence on the God who reveals.
Genesis 3 · Serpent's craftiness Daniel · God reveals mysteries Proverbs · Wise person watches steps
Wisdom language turns Daniel into a handbook for faithful interpretation. The point is not that Daniel "cracks the code" by himself, but that God graciously reveals what human insight cannot discover on its own.
Name Wordplay

Names That Preach: Belshazzar and the Writing on the Wall

Daniel uses names and wordplay to make theological points. The most famous example is the writing on the wall in chapter 5, where Aramaic words become a judgment on the king.

Belshazzar's Name

The name "Belshazzar" contains "Bel," the Babylonian god (a form of Marduk). His name means something like "Bel, protect the king." But in Daniel 5, Bel offers no protection; the kingdom is given to another.

Bel = Babylonian god Name = "Bel, protect the king" Irony: Bel cannot save

MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN

The mysterious words on the wall are Aramaic terms that can be read as weights (mina, shekel, half-mina) or as verbs:

  • MENE = "numbered" (God has numbered your kingdom)
  • TEKEL = "weighed" (you have been weighed and found wanting)
  • PERES/UPHARSIN = "divided" (your kingdom is divided and given to the Medes and Persians)
Numbered Weighed Divided Peres ≈ Persia (pun)
The wordplay in chapter 5 is multi-layered. The words can be read as weights (commercial terms), as verbs (divine judgment), and "Peres" sounds like "Persia"—the empire that will inherit Babylon's kingdom. Daniel's interpretation reveals that even the sounds of words point to God's sovereignty over history.
Time Words & Number Patterns

Sevens, "Times," and Limits on Beastly Power

Daniel is full of time phrases: "seven times," "seventy sevens," and "time, times, and half a time." The details are complex, but the literary effect is clear: beastly rule is always on a leash.

Step 1 · Seven Times

Nebuchadnezzar's humiliation lasts "seven times." His beastlike state is severe, but also limited. The same God who warned him also restores him when the time is up.

Step 2 · Seventy Sevens

In Daniel 9, exile and the desecration of the city are reframed as "seventy sevens." History is not random; it runs on a schedule of justice, cleansing, and covenant renewal.

Step 3 · Time, Times, Half

In Daniel 7 and 12, the period of intense oppression is described as "time, times, and half a time." The "half" signals that persecution is cut short. Evil is allowed to run, but not forever.

Final · Everlasting Dominion

In contrast, the kingdom given to the Son of Man and the saints is described as an everlasting dominion. Beastly rule is numbered; God's kingdom is not.

Daniel's number language does not satisfy every curiosity about dates, but it does something more pastoral: it reassures readers that all oppressive time is bounded, while God's reign is boundless.
Beast vs. Human Vocabulary

Are You Becoming More Beastlike or More Human?

At the center of Daniel's chiasm, a king becomes beastlike and then is restored. The vocabulary of that story, and of the visions, keeps asking a quiet question: what does it mean to be truly human?

Beast Words
  • "Driven from among men"
  • "Dwelt with the beasts of the field"
  • "Body was wet with the dew of heaven"
  • "Hair grew as eagles' feathers"
  • "Nails were like birds' claws" (4)
  • Beasts devouring, trampling, boasting (7)
Human Words
  • "My reason returned to me"
  • "My majesty and splendor were restored"
  • "I… blessed the Most High"
  • "Sanity," "honor," "glory" restored (4)
  • "One like a son of man" exalted (7)
  • "Those who are wise… shine like the brightness of the sky" (12)

"Grass of the Field": A Genesis 1 Echo

When Nebuchadnezzar is driven from human society, he eats "grass of the field" (4:32). This exact phrase appears in Genesis 1:30, where God assigns "every green plant" to the animals—not to humans, who receive fruit and grain.

By using this phrase, Daniel shows that Nebuchadnezzar has not just gone mad; he has taken on the animal diet from Genesis 1. He has become less than the image-bearing human he was meant to be. His restoration comes only when he "lifts his eyes to heaven"—acknowledging the God above him.

Beast language and human language are not random. Daniel suggests that true humanity is recovered only when kings—and ordinary people—live under God's rule. The Son of Man embodies that restored humanity and shares it with those who belong to him.

See the Literary Design page for how Nebuchadnezzar's story functions as a "New Adam" replay.
Key Phrase

"One Like a Son of Man": The Phrase That Defines the Book

The Aramaic phrase כְּבַר אֱנָשׁ (k'bar enash, "like a son of man") appears in Daniel 7:13. It simply means "a human one" or "someone human-like." But in context, it becomes one of the most significant phrases in Scripture.

בַּר אֱנָשׁ (bar enash) — Son of Man / Human One

In Aramaic, "son of" indicates membership in a class. A "son of man" is simply a member of the human species—a human being. The phrase is not a formal title like "king" or "priest."

But in Daniel 7, this "human one" stands in stark contrast to the beasts. While the beasts represent kingdoms that have become subhuman, the Son of Man is the truly human figure who receives everlasting dominion. He is what Adam was meant to be.

Why Jesus Called Himself "The Son of Man"

In the Gospels, "Son of Man" is Jesus' most common self-designation. He uses it far more than "Messiah" or "Christ." Why?

  • It's not a political title—it carries a whole biblical story.
  • It evokes Daniel 7: the human figure who receives God's kingdom after the beasts are judged.
  • It connects suffering and vindication: the Son of Man must suffer, then be exalted.

When Jesus said "the Son of Man" to his Jewish audience, they would have pictured Daniel 7's vision. He was claiming to be the truly human one who fills the empty throne beside God.

Jesus' preferred self-title Daniel 7 allusion Suffering → Exaltation Truly human = partner with God
The phrase "Son of Man" gathers up Daniel's entire theology: humans were made to rule, became beastly, and await one who will embody true humanity and restore humans to partnership with God.

See the Intertext page for how Jesus uses this phrase in the Gospels.

Study Questions

  1. Peoples, Nations, Languages: Track this phrase through Daniel 3–7. How does its "ownership" shift from Nebuchadnezzar's decrees to the Son of Man's kingdom?
  2. Royal Decrees: Compare the confessions of Nebuchadnezzar (chs. 3, 4) and Darius (ch. 6). What common elements appear? What does this "refrain" accomplish literarily and theologically?
  3. Vocabulary Transfer: Track the word "dominion" (שָׁלְטָן) through Daniel 2–7. How does its "ownership" shift from chapter 2 to chapter 7?
  4. Wisdom Language: How does Daniel's emphasis on God "revealing mysteries" compare to the serpent's claim in Genesis 3 to reveal hidden knowledge? What is the contrast?
  5. Name Wordplay: What is the irony in Belshazzar's name ("Bel, protect the king") in light of chapter 5's events? How does the MENE, TEKEL, PERES wordplay function?
  6. Time Phrases: What pastoral comfort might the phrases "seven times," "seventy sevens," and "time, times, and half a time" offer to readers living under oppressive powers?
  7. Grass of the Field: Why is the phrase "grass of the field" (4:32) significant? How does it connect Nebuchadnezzar's humiliation to Genesis 1?
  8. Son of Man: Why might Jesus have preferred "Son of Man" to "Messiah" as a self-designation? What does the phrase evoke that "Messiah" does not?
  9. Application: How might attending to Daniel's vocabulary (not just its visions) change how we read and apply the book today?
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Bibliography & Sources

Academic references for Daniel wordplay study

Video & Podcast Resources

The Bible Project. "Son of Man" podcast series (Episodes 1–3), January 2019. Available at bibleproject.com
Son of Man Vocabulary Genesis Connections Extended discussion of "grass of the field" and Genesis 1 diet language

Lexical & Philological Studies

Coxon, P.W. "The Syntax of the Aramaic of Daniel." In Handbuch der Orientalistik: The Aramaic Language. Leiden: Brill, 1992.
Aramaic Terms Technical analysis of Daniel's Aramaic syntax and vocabulary
Jastrow, Marcus. Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Babli, Yerushalmi, and Midrashic Literature. 2 vols. New York: Judaica Press, 1996 [1903].
Dominion Vocabulary Essential reference for Aramaic terms like malkû and sholtan

Literary & Rhetorical Studies

Valeta, David M. Lions and Ovens and Visions: A Satirical Reading of Daniel 1–6. Hebrew Bible Monographs 12. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2008.
Royal Refrains Attention to irony and repeated formulae in the court tales
Redditt, Paul L. Daniel. New Century Bible Commentary. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999.
Time Patterns Analysis of numerical and time phrases

Major Commentaries

Collins, John J. Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993.
All Sections Definitive critical commentary with philological notes
Goldingay, John E. Daniel. Word Biblical Commentary 30. Dallas: Word, 1989.
Wisdom Language Evangelical commentary with close attention to vocabulary

Theological Word Studies

VanGemeren, Willem A., ed. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997.
Kingdom Vocabulary Theological word studies for kingdom, dominion, and related terms

Note on Sources: This bibliography focuses on sources addressing Daniel's vocabulary, repeated phrases, and rhetorical devices. For historical-critical and apocalyptic genre issues, consult the Literary Design bibliography.

Citation Format: Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition